Rethinking extensive livestock grazing to revive Mediterranean mountain landscapes

Extensive livestock grazing is vital for the socio-economic resilience of Mediterranean mountains, providing key environmental benefits. Grazing patterns result from complex interactions between topographical, environmental, and anthropogenic factors, requiring an understanding of these dynamics to optimise land management. This study analyses spatio-temporal patterns of extensive livestock grazing in the Iberian System (north-eastern Spain), a representative Mediterranean mountain with a history of agricultural abandonment. Using GPS tracking, spatial analysis, and statistical modelling, this research evaluates how land use and land cover, environmental variables, public policy, and human infrastructure affect livestock movement. Three hypotheses are tested: (1) grazing distribution is influenced by both environmental and anthropogenic factors; (2) silvopastoral systems are key components of grazing; and (3) shrub cleared areas display heterogeneous levels of use. Results reveal diurnal and seasonal patterns, with peak grazing during early morning and late afternoon, and a decline in cattle presence during autumn and winter. Approximately 81 % of grazing occurs on land subsidised by the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), whereas sheep dominate silvopastoral areas (non-subsidised). Shrub pastures and pastures are most frequently grazed, though wooded pastures exhibited the highest intensity. Species-specific preferences were evident: sheep prefer higher altitudes and steeper terrains, while cattle favour areas with higher NDVI values. Multiple regression analysis reveals that proximity to water, salt, and feed points and livestock sheds are key predictors of grazing distribution. Shrub clearing enhances grazing activity. These findings highlight the need for targeted grazing management strategies to improve the ecological and economic sustainability of Mediterranean mountains.