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The development of all multicellular organisms starts with the fusion of haploid cells called sperm and egg to form a diploid zygote. A zygote is a totipotent cell that can develop into a complete organism. The zygote undergoes cell division or cleavage to form an 8-cell mass. Until this stage, the cells are spherical, loosely attached, and remain totipotent. Totipotent cells are capable of developing both the embryonic and the extraembryonic tissues. However, as they continue to divide, they...
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The skin is divided into epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis, the skin's outermost, middle, and inner layers. The human epidermal layer regularly undergoes renewal, where old, dead cells are replaced by new cells. Epidermal stem cells or EpiSCs divide and differentiate to restore the lost cells. For the renewal process, some EpiSCs continuously self-renew. In contrast, few others differentiate into transit-amplifying cells, which later form prickle or spinous cells, followed by granular...
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Cellular Differentiation00:57

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How does a complex organism such as a human develop from a single cell? It all starts from a single fertilized egg which gives rise to a vast array of cell types, such as nerve cells, muscle cells, and epithelial cells that characterize the adult? Throughout development and adulthood, cellular differentiation leads cells to assume their final morphology and physiology. Differentiation is the process by which unspecialized cells become specialized to carry out distinct functions.
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Cells of the Epidermis01:24

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The epidermis is made of four or five layers of epithelial cells, depending on its location in the body. From deep to superficial, these layers are the stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, and stratum corneum.
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Papillary Dermis01:11

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Dermis
The dermis might be considered the "core" of the integumentary system, as distinct from the epidermis and hypodermis. It contains blood and lymph vessels, nerves, and other structures, such as hair follicles and sweat glands. The dermis is made of two layers of connective tissue that comprise an interconnected mesh of elastin and collagenous fibers, produced by fibroblasts.
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The epidermis, the outermost layer of the skin, is composed of several distinct layers. From deep to superficial, the layers of the epidermis are as follows:
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Updated: May 5, 2026

Functional Calcium Imaging in Developing Cortical Networks
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Molecular Signatures in Cortical Development.

Marilyn R Steyert1,2,3, Tao Li1,4, Xianhua Piao2,4,5

  • 1Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA; email: marilyn.steyert@ucsf.edu, tomasz.nowakowski@ucsf.edu.

Annual Review of Neuroscience
|July 16, 2025
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

This review explores how diverse cerebral cortex cell types develop from progenitor cells, using genomics to map molecular signatures during early brain development in mammals.

Keywords:
braincortexdevelopmentlineageradial gliasingle-cell transcriptomics

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Developmental Biology
  • Genomics

Background:

  • The cerebral cortex is crucial for higher-order cognition and comprises numerous cell types.
  • Cellular diversity arises from limited progenitor types via developmental processes like neurogenesis and migration.
  • Recent advances in genomics offer insights into cortical development.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review principles of cerebral cortex cell type emergence during development.
  • To contextualize molecular signatures of cell types using transcriptomic data.
  • To discuss challenges in studying developmental dynamics.

Main Methods:

  • Review of existing literature.
  • Analysis of high-throughput single-cell and spatial genomics data.
  • Integration of transcriptomic studies.

Main Results:

  • Identification of major principles governing cell type diversity in the cerebral cortex.
  • Characterization of molecular signatures associated with cell forms, functions, and states.
  • Highlighting the role of developmental events in cell fate determination.

Conclusions:

  • The remarkable diversity of cerebral cortex cell types emerges through stereotypic developmental processes.
  • Genomic studies are key to understanding the molecular basis of cell type formation.
  • Capturing developmental dynamics requires overcoming limitations of static measurements.