3D printing-enabled spatial patterning of biomimetic signals for bone tissue engineering

Over the years, sustained research into the role of biomolecules in bone regeneration has provided valuable insights into their potential as therapeutic agents for tissue growth. However, challenges such as short half-lives and high production costs underscore the need for advanced tissue engineering platforms. Precise spatial delivery of these biomolecules to target sites remains a critical requirement. 3D printing has emerged as a powerful technology, enabling the layer-by-layer fabrication of hierarchically complex 3D structures with tailored biomechanical properties. Additionally, it facilitates the preservation and delivery of bioactive molecules following desirable kinetic patterns. This review highlights the most recent and notable advancements of 3D printing-enabled spatial patterning of biological cues aimed at promoting the formation of bone tissue, vascularized bone, osteochondral tissue, and bone-tendon interface.