Activating Mitochondrial Complex I by Polyphenol Nanoparticle to Inhibit Hypoxia-Inducible Factor-1 Subunit α for...

Mitochondrial respiratory dysfunction accelerates the conversion of cellular oxidative phosphorylation into malignancy-dependent glycolysis to enhance tumor immune escape. Here, engineering PEGylated epigallocatechin gallate nanoparticles (PE-NPs) in injectable hyaluronan gels upregulated oxidative phosphorylation by activating mitochondrial complex I of B16F10 cells, which greatly increased NAD⁺ level, a NADH oxidation product catalyzed by complex I, to inhibit hypoxia-inducible factor-1 expression. The immunomodulatory effect of PE-NPs was confirmed by the simultaneous downregulation of the MAPK, PI3K-AKT/mTOR pathways, and PD-L1 protein expression. Surgical resection, paraneoplastic administration, and distal metastasis models confirmed that PE-NPs significantly suppressed tumor recurrence, growth, and metastasis. It also promoted a systemic immune response by increasing CD8⁺ T cell differentiation, reducing CD4⁺ regulatory T cells in melanoma, promoting splenic dendritic cell maturation, and improving memory T cell differentiation. A synergistic approach using PE-NPs with PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors significantly enhanced immune efficacy, confirming the feasibility of activating mitochondrial complex I boosts oxidative phosphorylation to potentiate melanoma immunotherapy as an effective strategy.