Nanoparticle-based biosensors for virus detection in food systems: from farm to fork

Viral contamination in food systems poses significant risks to public health, agricultural productivity, and economic stability due to the persistence of viruses across key stages in the food system. This review examines the expanding role of nanoparticle-based biosensors for detecting these viral threats. A key novelty of this work is its system-wide perspective, which, unlike most reviews that focus on a single virus category, connects viral threats and technological solutions across the entire food chain, from production to consumption. It encompasses critical foodborne viruses like norovirus, major livestock viruses such as avian influenza virus, and economically important crop-affecting viruses such as maize chlorotic mottle virus. The review begins by first outlining the major viral challenges with the food system, providing a holistic context for detection needs. Following this, an overview of key nanoparticles and viral analytes central to biosensor design is presented. The core of this work is the critical assessment of nanobiosensor innovations for four major foodborne viruses, key livestock viruses, and multiple crop viruses, evaluating the performance and practical limitations of each technology. Finally, the review addresses the overarching challenges and future perspectives crucial for translating these technologies from the lab to the field. We provide a detailed analysis of biological hurdles like non-culturability, as well as logistical barriers including the food matrix effect, and manufacturing scalability. Promising future directions, such as multiplexing and AI integration, are also explored. While most developments remain at the proof-of-concept stage, this review concludes that nanoparticle-enhanced biosensors show clear potential for becoming a needed tool to strengthen food system resilience.