Three-Dimensional Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Human Stellate Ganglion

Reports of visualization of the stellate ganglion via magnetic resonance imaging date back to the early 1990s. However, such imaging has not been fully utilized, presumably due to vagueness of its topographic anatomy, small size, suboptimal image quality, and limited reproducibility. Considering the recent advancements in the field of neuroradiological imaging, including magnetic resonance neurography, and emerging interests regarding cardiac neuroanatomy and neuromodulation, such as stellate ganglion phototherapy, it is time to revisit the anatomy and imaging of the stellate ganglion, as it largely controls the sympathetic tone of the heart. Quantification and qualification of the stellate ganglion can drive innovation in the management and treatment of cardiovascular diseases.