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Dimensions of Health and Illness01:21

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Barriers to Effective Communication II01:21

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The barriers to effective communication also include cultural barriers, semantic barriers, gender barriers, and time constraints.
Cultural barriers:
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When a person's physical, emotional, intellectual, social development or spiritual functioning is compromised, this deviation from a healthy normal state is called illness. Illness creates stress that in turn harms individuals. Irritation, anger, denial, hopelessness, and fear are behavioral and emotional changes an individual experiences in the phases of illness. A variety of factors influence a person's health and well-being.
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Humans are very diverse and although we share many similarities, we also have many differences. The social groups we belong to help form our identities (Tajfel, 1974). These differences may be difficult for some people to reconcile, which may lead to prejudice toward people who are different. Prejudice is a negative attitude and feeling toward an individual based solely on one’s membership in a particular social group (Allport, 1954; Brown, 2010). Prejudice is common against people who...
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The hosts' susceptibility to infection depends on several factors. The integrity of the skin and mucous membranes helps protect the body against microbial attacks. When the skin is altered, the chance of infection, limb loss, and even death increases.
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Regression toward the mean (“RTM”) is a phenomenon in which extremely high or low values—for example, and individual’s blood pressure at a particular moment—appear closer to a group’s average upon remeasuring. Although this statistical peculiarity is the result of random error and chance, it has been problematic across various medical, scientific, financial and psychological applications. In particular, RTM, if not taken into account, can interfere when...
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Updated: Sep 11, 2025

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Systems Factors Contributing to Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Maternal Health: A Systematic Review.

Tosin B Akintunde1, Myesha A Senior1, Ayaba Logan2

  • 1Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S 3G8, Canada.

Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities
|August 11, 2025
PubMed
Summary

Racial disparities in maternal health outcomes persist due to hospital-level factors. Addressing system issues like staffing and care coordination is crucial for improving maternal health equity.

Keywords:
Adverse outcomesEquityHealth systemMaternal outcomesRacial/ethnic disparitiesSystem factors

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Area of Science:

  • Health Services Research
  • Maternal Health Equity
  • Health Systems Science

Background:

  • Racial and ethnic disparities in maternal outcomes, including mortality and morbidity, persist in high-income countries like the US and Canada.
  • Limited research has explored hospital-level factors contributing to these disparities and adverse maternal outcomes.
  • This systematic review focuses on health system factors driving adverse outcomes and disparities in the US and Canada.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To systematically review and summarize hospital-level factors contributing to adverse maternal outcomes.
  • To identify health system factors that drive racial/ethnic disparities in maternal health.
  • To inform future policies and practices aimed at reducing maternal health inequities.

Main Methods:

  • A systematic search of SCOPUS, PubMed, EBSCOhost, and ProQuest Healthcare Administration was conducted.
  • Studies reporting hospital-level factors for adverse maternal outcomes and racial/ethnic disparities were included after a two-stage screening.
  • The System Engineering Initiative for Patient Safety (SEIPS) 2.0 framework was used for factor identification and categorization.

Main Results:

  • 30 studies (28 US, 2 Canada) met the inclusion criteria, comprising qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-methods research.
  • Sixty factors were identified across system components: person (12%), tasks (28%), tools/technology (7%), internal environment (10%), organization (28%), and external environment (15%).
  • Key contributing factors included resource shortages (staffing), poor care coordination, and discriminatory organizational practices.

Conclusions:

  • Adverse maternal outcomes and racial/ethnic disparities are significantly influenced by health system factors.
  • Addressing these internal health system factors, alongside broader societal issues, is essential for improving maternal health and promoting equity.
  • Interventions targeting hospital-level deficiencies are critical for achieving equitable outcomes for all women and birthing individuals.