Advancing oral squamous cell carcinoma research: the evolving role of patient-derived cell lines, xenografts, and organoid models

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is a prevalent and aggressive malignancy associated with high morbidity and mortality. Despite advancements in therapeutic strategies over the past decades, patient survival has not improved significantly due to underlying genomic heterogeneity, drug resistance, and late-stage diagnosis. Traditional preclinical models have contributed significantly to OSCC research, but often fail to fully recapitulate the complexity of the tumor microenvironment (TME) and patient-specific responses. This review comprehensively outlines the diverse preclinical models used in OSCC research, including two-dimensional (2D) monolayer cultures, three-dimensional (3D) spheroids, organoids, animal models, and patient-derived xenografts (PDXs). Each model is discussed in terms of its biological relevance, advantages, limitations, and contributions to translational research. Particular attention is given to the emerging potential of organoid systems and PDXs in personalized medicine and high-throughput drug screening. Furthermore, we underscore the importance of integrative approaches combining genomics, proteomics, and pharmacological data to better recapitulate tumor heterogeneity and predict therapeutic response. This review aims to guide researchers in selecting appropriate preclinical platforms to accelerate therapeutic development and precision oncology in OSCC.