Cas9 beyond CRISPR - SUMOylation, effector-like potential and pathogenic adaptation

The CRISPR/Cas9 system has revolutionized molecular biology and gene editing, yet key aspects of its regulation, especially within eukaryotic environments, remain enigmatic. In this Viewpoint article, I will speculate on and explore the provocative hypothesis that Cas9 may possess previously unrecognized effector-like functions when expressed in host cells, potentially shaped by host-mediated post-translational modifications (PTMs). Of particular interest is SUMOylation at lysine 848, a key residue for DNA binding within the catalytic site, raising the possibility that this modification is not incidental, but functionally significant and precisely regulated. SUMOylation, a eukaryotic PTM, is increasingly recognized as a mechanism that also targets bacterial and viral effector proteins and virulence factors during infection, exerting context-dependent effects that may either enhance or hinder pathogen replication. Could Cas9, beyond its canonical role in bacterial CRISPR immunity, act as a host-modulating effector during infection, akin to known bacterial nucleomodulins such as transcription activator-like (TAL) effectors? If so, this would imply that certain pathogenic bacteria may have evolved Cas9 variants capable of exploiting host PTM machinery and targeting the host genome-an adaptation with potential implications for microbial virulence, host-pathogen interactions, and co-evolutionary dynamics. This perspective underscores the importance of systematically mapping Cas9 PTMs and examining their evolutionary conservation, functional significance, and pharmacological tunability, not only for basic biological insight and to deepen our understanding of microbial strategies, but also to refine the precision and safety of Cas9-based therapeutic platforms.