Pyrite-mediated sustainable groundwater remediation: mechanisms, applications, and challenges

As an abundant natural mineral, pyrite presents a highly promising solution for sustainable groundwater remediation, owing to its distinct electron transfer properties. However, research on pyrite's remediation capabilities has often focused on isolated mechanisms, neglecting the complex interplay between the mineral's properties, the environmental matrix, and interfacial processes, thereby limiting comprehensive understanding of its efficacy and constraints. Herein, an integrated "mechanism-application-sustainability" framework is proposed to bridge this knowledge gap. It systematically elucidates pyrite's multi-scale remediation mechanisms and its diverse applications for preventing and remediating groundwater pollution. A core component of this framework is the integration of a life-cycle assessment perspective to prospectively identify the sustainability and environmental safety challenges of long-term pyrite applications and to outline promising research directions. Ultimately, this review aims to provide a fundamental understanding and strategic guidance for the rational design and sustainable deployment of pyrite-based remediation technologies, with the goal of accelerating their translation from laboratory research to engineering applications.