Conductive and Semiconductive 2D Materials for Neural Interfaces, Biosensors, and Therapeutic Modulation

Due to population aging, the surge in chronic diseases, and recent pandemics, healthcare is increasingly shifting from hospital-centered models toward digital care. However, widespread adoption is impeded by signal degradation under physiological motion, biofouling, stringent power and data constraints. Effectively overcoming these challenges will require clinically robust devices providing precise, reliable, and reproducible performance. 2D materials address these demands through high carrier mobility that can improve signal-to-noise ratios, low-defect lattices for uniformity, and mechanical pliability that maintains intimate tissue contact and stable impedance during motion. These traits have fueled the rapid growth of 2D-material bioelectronics for remote care in lightweight, stretchable devices. This review surveys flexible, low-impedance neural electrodes of graphene, transition-metal dichalcogenides, and MXenes that integrate electrophysiological recording with optical imaging to provide high-resolution brain interfaces. It then examines their roles in biosensing and autonomous therapy, including sub-picomolar biomarker detection in complex fluids and photothermal, genetic, and antibacterial interventions. Open questions regarding long-term biocompatibility, scalable manufacturing, and protocol harmonization are highlighted. By aligning recent breakthroughs with persistent challenges, the review outlines the prospects of conductive and semiconductive 2D materials for neural interfacing, biosensing, and therapeutic delivery, and maps a pathway toward practical clinical translation.