Tracking Lead: Potentiometric Tools and Technologies for a Toxic Element

Lead contamination remains a critical global concern due to its persistent toxicity, bioaccumulative nature, and widespread occurrence in water, food, and industrial environments. The accurate, cost-effective, and rapid detection of lead ions (Pb²⁺) is essential for protecting public health and ensuring environmental safety. Among the available techniques, potentiometric sensors, particularly ion-selective electrodes (ISEs), have emerged as practical tools owing to their simplicity, portability, low power requirements, and high selectivity. This review summarizes recent progress in lead-selective potentiometry, with an emphasis on electrode architectures and material innovations that enhance analytical performance. Reported sensors achieve detection limits as low as 10^-10 M, broad linear ranges typically spanning 10^-10-10^-2 M, and near-Nernstian sensitivities of ~28-31 mV per decade. Many designs also demonstrate reproducible responses in complex matrices. Comparative analysis highlights advances in traditional liquid-contact electrodes and modern solid-contact designs modified with nanomaterials, ionic liquids, and conducting polymers. Current challenges-including long-term stability, calibration frequency, and selectivity against competing metal ions-are discussed, and future directions for more sensitive, selective, and user-friendly Pb²⁺ sensors are outlined.