Human health risk assessment of Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are persistent environmental pollutants which can bioaccumulate in aquatic species, raising concerns about human exposure to PFAS through fish consumption. Given the global reliance on fish as a protein source, this study aimed to conduct a traditional literature review to assess PFAS bioaccumulation potential in fish and associated health risks. The reported PFAS levels follow the order (from high to low): dust in firefighting buildings > leachate > wastewater > groundwater > surface water > sediment > soil > other sources > fish > drinking water. A kinetic bioconcentration/bioaccumulation model incorporating uptake, elimination, growth, and metabolism rates can effectively predict PFAS levels in fish. At the same time, Monte Carlo simulations are able to refine exposure risk assessments further. From the hazard characterisation point of view, the No Observed Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL) for developmental toxicity, governing endpoint having the lowest observed dose, was found to be as low as 1.1 × 10^-4 μg/kg BW/day, with prenatal exposure to PFOS and PFOA linked to adverse birth outcomes. Knowledge gaps remain regarding emerging PFAS, low-dose toxicity, and detoxification strategies. This study underscores the need for improved regulatory measures and predictive modelling to ensure food safety.