Prevalence and correlates of adverse childhood experiences in fathers: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are an important precursor for psychological and physical illness, with important implications for intergenerational risk. However, most of the literature on the intergenerational transmission of ACEs and related risks has focused on maternal ACEs and their impact on prenatal and postnatal health and parenting practices. Given that men are as likely as women to experience ACEs, and that fathers' involvement in childrearing has grown significantly in recent decades, it is important to understand the prevalence and intergenerational correlates of paternal ACEs.

This systematic review aimed to synthesize existing research on paternal ACEs.

A systematic review was conducted in CINAHL, EMBASE, Medline, and PsycINFO, identifying 66 studies (drawn from 56 distinct samples) reporting on fathers' ACEs separately from mothers' ACEs. Data on the prevalence and correlates of paternal ACEs were extracted from each study.

Contrary to population-based studies comparing men and women, a significant difference emerged between fathers' and mothers' ACEs, with mothers presenting higher ACEs (Hedge's g = 0.18, 95 % CI [0.12, 0.25], p < .001). The most reported ACEs among fathers were parental separation/divorce, followed by psychological violence and neglect. The literature on correlates remains sparse, although it suggests associations between paternal ACEs and paternal depression, as well as child ACEs and behavioral problems.

There is an urgent need for more research on paternal ACEs to help inform targeted prevention and intervention efforts with fathers. An adapted version of the Heuristic model of fathering is proposed to guide future research.