Early-Life Dietary Exposure to Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA) Through Milk Consumption: A Systematic Review

Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) has raised public concern due to its widespread presence/use and toxic health effects including hepatotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and developmental toxicity. Because dietary intake is a major route of PFOA exposure, and milk is a primary source of nutrition in early life, the present systematic review discusses PFOA occurrence in milk samples and the employed determination methods. In the present article, 69 studies (published 2007-2024) reporting PFOA levels in infant formula, commercial milk, and human breast milk were included. The highest concentration of PFOA in infant formula and commercial milk was reported from Spain (2490 ng/kg) and the highest level of PFOA in breast milk from Belgium (3.5 ng/mL). The most commonly used approaches for extraction and analysis of PFOA were solid-phase extraction and LC-MS/MS, respectively. The evidence indicates the need for constant monitoring of PFOA levels in milk samples to safeguard vulnerable populations, especially neonates, infants, and children.