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Transmission Electron Microscopy

Transmission Electron Microscopy

In 1931, physicist Ernst Ruska—building on the idea that magnetic fields can direct an electron beam just as lenses can direct a beam of light in an optical microscope—developed the first prototype of the electron microscope. This development led to the development of the field of electron microscopy. In the transmission electron microscope (TEM), electrons are produced by a hot tungsten element and accelerated by a potential difference in an electron gun, which gives them up to 400...

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Real-Time Visualization of Calcium Phosphate Formation on Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles Using Liquid Transmission

Jing Zhang¹, Liza-Anastasia DiCecco^2,3, Alyssa Williams⁴

¹Department of Materials Science and Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4L7, Canada.

Small (Weinheim an Der Bergstrasse, Germany)

|October 3, 2025

Summary

Titanium dioxide (TiO₂) integrated with hydroxyapatite (HAP) enhances bone implants. This study reveals the three-step CaP mineralization process on TiO₂ using advanced microscopy, improving implant bioactivity and stability.

Keywords:

biomaterials interface biomineralization calcium phosphate liquid electron microscopy titanium dioxide

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Area of Science:

Biomaterials Science
Nanotechnology
Materials Chemistry

Background:

Titanium dioxide (TiO₂) and calcium phosphate (CaP)-based hydroxyapatite (HAP) integration is key for bioactive bone implants.
Limited understanding of CaP mineralization on TiO₂ hinders implant development due to characterization challenges in hydrated states.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the interfacial reactions and mineralization process of CaP on TiO₂ nanoparticles.
To provide insights into the nucleation, aggregation, and crystallization of CaP layers on TiO₂ surfaces.

Main Methods:

Utilized in situ liquid transmission electron microscopy (TEM) for dynamic imaging of mineralization.
Employed correlative ex situ TEM analyses for detailed structural investigation.
Evaluated the effects of electron beam exposure on TiO₂ nanoparticle morphology.

Main Results:

Identified a three-step CaP mineralization process: TiO₂ nanoparticle aggregation, amorphous CaP (ACP) layer formation, and ACP crystallization into HAP.
Captured dynamic transformations including aggregation, structural evolution, and phase transitions using liquid-TEM.
Observed electron beam-induced morphological instability in TiO₂ nanoparticles at high flux densities.

Conclusions:

Advanced understanding of CaP-TiO₂ interfacial mineralization dynamics.
Demonstrated the potential of TiO₂-HAP composites for enhanced bone implant bioactivity.
Provided guidance for optimizing bioactive coatings to improve osseointegration and implant stability.