Physical and Chemical Methods for DNA Vaccine Delivery: Insights into the Melanoma Landscape

Melanoma is a type of cancer that originates in melanocytes with high malignancy, mainly because the cancer cells can spread through the body and cause metastasis. It is projected that the annual incidence of melanoma will increase by over 50% between 2020 and 2040. DNA vaccines have been explored for the treatment and prevention of various globally important diseases and are a promising resource for melanoma. Generally, DNA vaccines are classified as third-generation vaccines, which consist of DNA plasmids encoding target antigens. Therefore, their mechanism of action involves delivering one or more genes of interest into host cells, triggering an immune response against the target antigen. In summary, the DNA vaccine must enter the cell cytoplasm and migrate to the nucleus to initiate replication, transcription, and production of the target antigen. Despite their many advantages, DNA constructs produce low levels of antigens in vivo due to the challenges in effectively activating an immune response. This review addresses general aspects relevant to the application of DNA vaccines in the landscape of melanoma treatment, focusing mainly on physical and chemical methods used to enhance DNA-based vaccines, considering key aspects of technology, advantages, limitations, applications, and the evolution of clinical translation.