Emerging transistors and magnetic memories for harsh radiation environments

The development of radiation-tolerant electronics is indispensable for aerospace, deep-space missions, nuclear power infrastructure, and medical devices, where conventional silicon-based systems suffer severe performance degradation in harsh radiation environments. This review systematically evaluates recent progress in next-generation radiation-tolerant transistors and magnetic memory technologies, particularly emphasis on carbon nanotube field-effect transistors (CNTFETs), two-dimensional material-based FETs (2D-FETs), spin-transfer torque magnetic random-access memory (STT-MRAM), and spin-orbit torque MRAM (SOT-MRAM). We analyze their underlying operating mechanisms, notable breakthroughs, radiation tolerance, and scalability potential relative to silicon FETs (Si-FETs) and volatile memory counterparts such as SRAM. For example, the atomic-scale thin channels and robust covalent bonding in CNTFETs and 2D-FETs inherently suppress radiation-induced displacement damage, while spin-based STT-/SOT-MRAM demonstrates intrinsic radiation resistance through magnetism-mediated data storage. Nevertheless, persistent challenges in material deposition, interface optimization, and manufacturing scalability hinder practical implementation. Additionally, monolithic three-dimensional (M3D) integration as a transformative approach has the potential to assemble these emerging technologies into radiation-hardened systems with superior functional density. By enabling vertical stacking of heterogeneous devices and compact interconnects, M3D architectures could overcome traditional scaling bottlenecks while synergizing the radiation tolerance of carbon nanomaterials, 2D semiconductors, and magnetic memory elements. This review outlines a strategic roadmap for next-generation radiation-tolerant electronics, highlighting critical innovations across materials science, device physics, and advanced integration paradigms.