Health risk assessment of potentially toxic elements in bread from Iranian markets using Monte Carlo simulation

Given the nutritional importance of bread in the Iranian diet, ensuring its safety regarding chemical contaminants is crucial. This study assesses the potential health risks posed by heavy metals in bread available in Iran. A total of 248 bread samples were collected from 11 provinces during winter 2020. After sample preparation, the concentration of heavy metals was measured using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy. A health risk assessment model was employed to evaluate health effects and carcinogenic potential. The average concentrations of Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), Iron (Fe), Cadmium (Cd), Aluminum (Al), Cobalt (Co), Lead (Pb), Chromium (Cr), Nickel (Ni), and Mercury (Hg) were 3.08 ± 1.24, 13.6 ± 44.94, 59.24 ± 30.62, 0.004 ± 0.02, 4.98 ± 2.85, 0.01 ± 0.03, 0.65 ± 1.71, 1 ± 1.42, 0.05 ± 0.23, and 0.03 ± 0.12 mg/kg dry weight, respectively. Notably, the levels of Pb (0.65 ± 1.71 mg/kg) and Cr (1 ± 1.42 mg/kg) exceeded the WHO/FAO and Iranian National Standards threshold levels for both children and adults, indicating potential health risks. Overall, these findings suggest potential health and carcinogenic risks associated with heavy metals contamination in bread. Continuous monitoring of wheat and derived products is recommended to safeguard public health.