Progress in skeletal muscle tissue engineering: advancing from 3D to 4D bioprinting

Area of Science:

• Biomedical Engineering
• Regenerative Medicine
• Tissue Engineering

Background:

• Skeletal muscles are crucial for movement, posture, and thermoregulation.
• Severe muscle injuries, like volumetric muscle loss (VML), often require surgical intervention.
• Current treatments like functional free muscle transfer (FFMT) have limitations, including donor site morbidity and poor regeneration.

Purpose of the Study:

• To review advancements in 3D and 4D bioprinting for skeletal muscle repair and regeneration.
• To highlight novel biofabrication approaches utilizing external stimuli for scaffold development.
• To discuss challenges and future perspectives for clinical translation of bioprinted scaffolds in SMTE.

Main Methods:

• Review of recent literature on 3D and 4D bioprinting techniques for skeletal muscle tissue engineering.
• Analysis of studies employing external stimuli (magnetic, electric, thermal, humidity) for scaffold shape-shifting.
• Discussion of scaffold design principles for mimicking native tissue microarchitecture and promoting cell alignment.

Main Results:

• 3D printing and bioprinting offer viable scaffolds for skeletal muscle regeneration, guiding cell organization.
• 4D biofabrication utilizes external stimuli to achieve time-dependent shape changes in scaffolds, enhancing tissue mimicry.
• These advanced fabrication methods show potential for improved outcomes in VML injury treatment.

Conclusions:

• 3D and 4D bioprinting represent significant advancements in skeletal muscle tissue engineering.
• Novel biofabrication strategies hold promise for overcoming limitations of current treatments for VML injuries.
• Further research and development are necessary for the clinical translation of these technologies.