Bridging miRNA Research with Clinical Applications in Cardiovascular Diseases: Advances in Delivery Systems and...

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are integral to the regulation of gene expression pertinent to cardiovascular health, affecting various biological processes, such as cell adhesion, inflammation, and lipid metabolism. Certain miRNAs (miR-1, miR-133a, miR-133b, miR-208a, etc.) have been associated with a range of cardiovascular disorders, including atherosclerosis, arrhythmias, and myocardial infarction, indicating their potential utility as therapeutic targets and biomarkers. Nevertheless, the therapeutic application of miRNAs is constrained by their inherent instability and suboptimal cellular uptake, which can be attributed to their negative charge and vulnerability to degradation. To mitigate these challenges, a variety of delivery systems have been developed, encompassing both viral vectors (such as adeno-associated viruses, adenoviruses, and lentiviral vectors) and non-viral vectors (including liposomes and polymer nanoparticles). Besides, the integration of nanoparticles, extracellular vesicles, and a hydrogel system can enhance the stability, targeting, and efficiency of miRNA delivery. Furthermore, advanced systems, such as intelligent responsive delivery mechanisms and multifunctional joint delivery systems, are currently under investigation to improve therapeutic outcomes. Notably, studies exploring poly (β-amino esters) as a non-viral gene delivery vector have demonstrated potential in advancing gene therapy for cardiovascular diseases. This article reviews the role of miRNAs in cardiovascular disease pathogenesis and therapy, discusses recent progress in miRNA delivery strategies, and summarizes clinical challenges and highlights the critical need for continuous innovation in delivery systems to enhance treatment efficacy, ensure safety, and facilitate industrial scalability.