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Related Concept Videos

Menopause01:28

Menopause

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Menopause, a natural biological process marking the end of a woman's fertility, typically occurs between the fifth and sixth decade of life. This phase is characterized by the exhaustion of the ovarian follicle pool, leading to less responsive ovaries despite the high levels of Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH). The consequential decrease in estrogen production results in symptoms like hot flashes, heavy sweating, headaches, hair loss, muscle pains, vaginal...
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Hormonal Regulation of the Menstrual Cycle01:22

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The ovarian cycle regulates endometrial changes throughout a single menstrual cycle via the coordinated action of gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and gonadotrophins.
At puberty, GnRH begins a pulsatile release pattern, which triggers the anterior pituitary gland to secrete follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). The frequency and amplitude of GnRH pulses vary across the menstrual cycle, with faster pulses favoring LH release and slower pulses favoring FSH...
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Hormonal Control of the Ovarian Cycle01:30

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The ovarian cycle is meticulously regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. This cycle orchestrates the release of a mature oocyte, essential for reproduction.
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Hormonal Regulation01:40

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Hormones regulate a significant portion of digestion through activation of the neuroendocrine system. The neuroendocrine system of digestion contains many different hormones all with multiple functions that are both, directly and indirectly, involved in digestion.
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Hormonal Regulation01:33

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The renin-aldosterone system is an endocrine system which guides the renal absorption of water and electrolytes, thus managing blood pressure and osmoregulation. Activation of the system begins in the kidneys with a small cluster of cells adjacent to the afferent and efferent blood vessels of the renal corpuscle. As the nephrons are filtering blood, juxtaglomerular cells monitor blood pressure. If they detect a decrease in pressure, they release the hormone renin into the bloodstream.
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Cancer Therapies02:49

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Cancer therapies are various modes of treatment, such as surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy that are administered to cancer patients.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 10, 2026

An In Vivo Estrogen Deficiency Mouse Model for Screening Exogenous Estrogen Treatments of Cardiovascular Dysfunction After Menopause
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Menopausal Hormone Therapy-Risks, Benefits and Emerging Options: A Narrative Review.

Ana Maria Arnautu1, Vanda Roxana Nimigean2, Claudia Alexandra Nacea-Radu1

  • 1Endocrinology Department, Bucharest University Emergency Hospital, 050098 Bucharest, Romania.

International Journal of Molecular Sciences
|November 27, 2025
PubMed
Summary

Menopausal hormone therapy (MHT) effectively treats hot flashes and vaginal dryness, and prevents bone loss. Risks and benefits vary by MHT type, dose, and route, requiring personalized treatment plans.

Keywords:
estetrolhormone replacement therapymenopausal hormone therapypersonalized regimens

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Area of Science:

  • Reproductive Endocrinology and Women's Health
  • Pharmacology and Therapeutics
  • Evidence Synthesis and Clinical Guidelines

Background:

  • Menopausal hormone therapy (MHT) remains a primary treatment for menopausal symptoms.
  • Contemporary evidence synthesis is crucial for optimizing MHT use.
  • Understanding evolving risks and benefits informs clinical decision-making.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review current evidence on menopausal hormone therapy (MHT) benefits and risks.
  • To explore emerging MHT options and their safety profiles.
  • To provide guidance on individualized MHT prescription.

Main Methods:

  • Narrative review of peer-reviewed studies and guidelines up to September 2025.
  • Focus on recent literature (last five years) and qualitative synthesis.
  • Inclusion of major biomedical databases (MEDLINE/PubMed, Embase, Cochrane).

Main Results:

  • MHT is highly effective for vasomotor and genitourinary symptoms, and bone loss prevention.
  • Cardiovascular benefits are not established; risks (VTE, stroke) depend on route, dose, and progestogen type.
  • Breast cancer risk is regimen-specific; Estetrol (E4) shows promise but requires further safety data.

Conclusions:

  • Individualized MHT selection based on patient factors, timing, route, dose, and progestogen is essential.
  • Lowest effective doses should be used, with periodic reassessment.
  • Emerging therapies like Estetrol (E4) warrant continued investigation for long-term safety and efficacy.