Cancer stem cell heterogeneity‑inspired therapeutics for enhancing tumor treatment outcomes (Review)

Cancer stem cells (CSCs), a small subpopulation of cancer cells that exhibit stem‑like properties, possess the ability to differentiate and self‑renew. These capabilities enable CSCs to act as tumor‑initiating cells, driving tumorigenesis and proliferation, leading to major clinical challenges. Specifically, CSCs play a crucial role in metastasis, recurrence and drug resistance, thereby leading to complications in therapeutic responses. The plasticity of CSCs leads to heterogeneity, allowing them to adopt diverse phenotypes in response to intrinsic genetic factors or extrinsic environmental cues. This adaptability may serve as a mechanism for CSCs to thrive in the tumor microenvironment (TME) and promote tumor progression. The present article aimed to review the multifaceted nature of CSCs, examining their functional diversity, biomarkers and interactions with the TME. Through elucidating the mechanisms that underlie this heterogeneity, researchers aim to develop targeted therapeutic interventions against CSCs, thereby enhancing the efficacy of cancer treatments and improving patient outcomes.