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Gene Conversion02:08

Gene Conversion

Other than maintaining genome stability via DNA repair, homologous recombination plays an important role in diversifying the genome. In fact, the recombination of sequences forms the molecular basis of genomic evolution. Random and non-random permutations of genomic sequences create a library of new amalgamated sequences. These newly formed genomes can determine the fitness and survival of cells. In bacteria, homologous and non-homologous types of recombination lead to the evolution of new...
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Crossing over is the exchange of genetic information between homologous chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis I. Genetic recombination gives rise to allelic diversity in the newly formed daughter cells. In humans, crossing over produces genetically distinct haploid egg and sperm cells that undergo fertilization to produce unique offspring. Before cell division starts, the germ cell’s chromosome(s) undergo duplication in the S phase of the cell cycle. As the cells enter prophase I, duplicated...

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Polymerized Pro-Estrogen Microneedles via Two Photon Polymerization.

Yang Lou1, John T Leman1, Harper Serringer2

  • 1Materials Science & Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, USA.

Macromolecular Rapid Communications
|December 8, 2025
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

We developed 3D-printed microstructures using two-photon polymerization (TPP) that covalently integrate drugs. This novel polyprodrug approach enables controlled drug release for personalized transdermal delivery systems.

Keywords:
biomaterialestrogenmicroneedlepolyprodrugtransdermal

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Area of Science:

  • Biomaterials Science
  • Polymer Chemistry
  • Nanotechnology

Background:

  • Conventional drug carriers fabricated using two-photon polymerization (TPP) have limitations in drug payload and release kinetics.
  • Passive encapsulation methods lead to inefficient drug delivery and require complex post-processing steps.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To develop a novel method for fabricating intrinsically therapeutic microstructures using TPP.
  • To create a polyprodrug system where the therapeutic agent is part of the polymer backbone.
  • To establish a platform for personalized transdermal drug delivery with controlled release.

Main Methods:

  • Synthesis of estrogen-based diacrylate monomers from 17β-estradiol.
  • Fabrication of microscale needles using TPP with a photocurable resin.
  • Characterization of the thermoset material properties (e.g., modulus, glass transition temperature).
  • Assessment of drug release via hydrolytic degradation of ester bonds.

Main Results:

  • Successfully synthesized photocurable polyprodrug monomers.
  • Fabricated high-resolution (2 µm) microscale needles (100 × 100 × 400 µm) via TPP.
  • The resulting thermoset exhibited a storage modulus of ~2.5 GPa and a glass transition temperature of ~50°C.
  • Demonstrated hydrolytic degradation of the polymer backbone, releasing estradiol.

Conclusions:

  • TPP-printed polyprodrug microstructures offer a promising alternative to conventional drug carriers.
  • Covalent drug integration eliminates the need for post-processing drug loading and allows for controlled release.
  • This technology enables the development of personalized transdermal drug delivery devices with tunable release profiles.