Overview of strategies for 3D printing of fruit and vegetables: Mechanism, modification, challenges and future trends

As an emerging food processing paradigm, 3D printing technology has revolutionized the fabrication of customized fruit- and vegetable-based foods with tailored nutritional profiles. However, current key challenges in fruit- and vegetable-based 3D printing include poor printability due to inconsistent rheological properties of natural matrices, substantial nutrient degradation during processing, microbial contamination risks stemming from microbial reproduction, and frequent nozzle clogging caused by high dietary fiber content. This review systematically examines the cutting-edge developments in transforming fruit and vegetable materials into functional printing inks, focusing on achieving optimal organoleptic properties and nutrient retention. This paper examines pretreatment methodologies including dehydration techniques, hydrocolloid incorporation, and starch modification for enhancing material printability. Additionally, the analysis covers critical ink parameters governing 3D printed product quality, including rheological behavior, textural attributes, and moisture dynamics. Furthermore, it explores process optimization variables like nozzle geometry, deposition velocity, and layer height that influence dimensional accuracy. Finally, post-processing requirements for specific produce categories and future trends and challenges in this evolving field are addressed. Our findings demonstrate significant progress in utilizing fruit/vegetable matrices for 3D/4D food printing applications, while key challenges persist in production scalability, nutrient retention, multi-material integration, and regulatory compliance, warranting further research to advance this evolving field.