Molecular machines from individuals to swarms

Molecular machines convert physical and chemical energy into effective mechanical work, and have made significant progress as tools capable of micro- and nano-scale smart manipulation in fields such as medicine, catalysis, and materials. However, functional limitations hinder the rapid iteration of molecular machines toward practical applications. This requires not only the individual design of molecular machines to achieve more efficient performance in diverse systems but also the cooperation of molecular machines through a swarm to integrate spatial and temporal aspects, thereby scaling up molecular-scale deformations to macroscopic work. In this review, we discuss the latest achievements in individual and swarm design of molecular machines, address existing challenges, and provide insights into the future development of these machines.