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The Auditory Ossicles

The Auditory Ossicles

The auditory ossicles of the middle ear transmit sounds from the air as vibrations to the fluid-filled cochlea. The auditory ossicles consist of two malleus (hammer) bones, two incus (anvil) bones, and two stapes (stirrups), one on each side. These bones develop during the fetal stage and are the ones to ossify first. They are fully mature at birth and do not grow afterward.
The aptly named stapes look very much like a stirrup. The three ossicles are unique to mammals, and each plays a role in...

Anatomy of the Ear

Anatomy of the Ear

Auditory sensation, commonly called hearing, involves the transformation of sonic waves into neural impulses facilitated by the structures of the auditory organ. The prominent, flesh-like structure on the side of the head, called the auricle, directs sound waves towards the auditory canal. The auricle is often mislabeled as the pinna, a term more aligned with mobile structures like a feline's external ear. The auditory canal penetrates the cranium via the external auditory meatus of the...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 13, 2026

Synthetic, Multi-Layer, Self-Oscillating Vocal Fold Model Fabrication

Synthetic, Multi-Layer, Self-Oscillating Vocal Fold Model Fabrication

Published on: December 2, 2011

Engineering the human tympanic membrane: lessons from mechanics, modelling, and materials.

Sylvi F R Irnadiastputri^1,2, Yasna M Tiurma², Siti F Rahman^1,2

¹Division of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, 16424, Indonesia.

Biomechanics and Modeling in Mechanobiology

|December 15, 2025

Summary

Synthetic scaffolds offer improved alternatives to traditional grafts for tympanic membrane repair, addressing limitations of biological materials. This review details mechanical properties and computational models for designing better synthetic tympanic membrane replacements.

Keywords:

Finite element analysis Mechanical properties Synthetic grafts Tympanic membrane Tympanosclerosis

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Last Updated: May 13, 2026

Synthetic, Multi-Layer, Self-Oscillating Vocal Fold Model Fabrication

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Published on: December 2, 2011

Author Spotlight: Development of a Novel Finite Element Analysis Model for Improved Orthognathic Surgical Techniques

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Published on: October 20, 2023

Characterizing Dissipative Elastic Metamaterials Produced by Additive Manufacturing

Characterizing Dissipative Elastic Metamaterials Produced by Additive Manufacturing

Published on: June 28, 2024

Area of Science:

Biomedical Engineering
Materials Science
Otolaryngology

Background:

The tympanic membrane (TM) is crucial for hearing, and damage leads to conductive hearing loss.
Current tympanoplasty grafts (temporalis fascia, cartilage) have limitations like donor site issues and resorption.
Synthetic scaffolds are emerging as superior alternatives for TM repair.

Purpose of the Study:

To review the mechanical properties of healthy and diseased tympanic membranes.
To explore computational methods for simulating TM biomechanics.
To guide the rational design of synthetic TM grafts.

Main Methods:

Analysis of ex vivo and in vivo studies on TM mechanical characteristics (thickness, Young's modulus, tensile strength, etc.).
Review of computational strategies like finite element modelling (FEM) for TM response simulation.
Examination of emerging tissue engineering trends, including 3D printing and biomimetic scaffolds.

Main Results:

Detailed insights into the structural integrity and mechanical performance of native and pathological TMs.
Demonstration of FEM's utility in predicting TM behavior under various conditions.
Identification of key parameters for designing synthetic grafts that mimic native TM properties.

Conclusions:

Synthetic scaffolds hold significant promise for improving tympanoplasty outcomes.
Understanding TM biomechanics is essential for developing effective biomimetic grafts.
Advanced techniques like 3D printing can enhance the development of next-generation TM repair materials.