Exploring the Potential of 2D TMD-Based Optical Biosensors: Bridging Nanotechnology and Smart Diagnostics

Among various emerging 2D nanomaterials, transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) have garnered major recognition due to their distinct morphological and chemical features, including high surface area, tunable bandgaps, strong photoluminescence, and atomically thin structures. Their integration with optical biosensors has opened new avenues for enhancing sensor performance, offering improved sensitivity and lower detection limits compared to conventional platforms. This review covers structural and optical properties of 2D TMDs, followed by surface functionalization strategies-covalent and noncovalent-using both organic and inorganic nanomaterials to enhance biosensor functionality. The review then provides key optical detection methods such as surface plasmon resonance (SPR), evanescent wave techniques, fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET), label-free sensing, and signal amplification. Further, fabrication strategies for 2D TMD-based optical biosensors and methods for biomolecule immobilization are covered. Applications in protein and nucleic acid detection, cellular imaging, and environmental monitoring are highlighted in this review. Additionally, the review addresses sensor stability, reproducibility, and integration with microfluidics and lab-on-chip technologies. Finally, it explores emerging trends including multimodal sensing, the use of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) in biosensor data analysis, personalized sensing, and 5^th and 6^th generation sensing, emphasizing the transformative potential of 2D TMDs in future biosensing technologies. In addition, we highlighted the challenges and future prospects concerning structural engineering and advancement in TMDs-based optical biosensors. This review will lead researchers to explore novel detection methods, integration strategies, and progress in AI and ML-assisted 2D TMDs-based optical biosensors for personalized and high-performance sensing applications.