Studying and targeting off-season olive fruit fly biology to prevent olive damage, amid climate change

We review the literature on the seasonal biology of the olive fly (Bactrocera oleae), a practically monophagous pest of an iconic crop (olives), focusing on its less explored off-season (winter and spring) phenology. We argue that the spring generation is crucial for the pest's population growth later in the season. While winter severity determines the survival patterns of the overwintering generation and the density of the founding population in spring, the abundance of breeding resources in spring (remaining fruit on trees) is crucial for the development of the spring generation, with a major effect on population growth later in the season. We conceptualize a model that captures the interactions between olive flies and olive fruit during spring and elucidates the cyclic patterns observed in the population dynamics of the fly across successive years. Furthermore, we propose novel approaches to the off-season management of olive fly, which offer a sound and environmentally friendly strategy for controlling the pest.