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Maternal Coffee Consumption During Pregnancy and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Offspring: A

Ahmed Arafa1,2, Amira S A Said3, Ehab Elkady4

  • 1Department of Preventive Cardiology, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center, Suita 564-8565, Japan.

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
|December 30, 2025
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Summary

Maternal coffee consumption during pregnancy was linked to a higher risk of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in offspring. Further research is needed to confirm causality and establish safe caffeine intake levels during pregnancy.

Keywords:
ADHDcaffeinecoffeelifestyleneurodevelopmentpregnancypreventionrisk factors

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Area of Science:

  • Neurodevelopmental disorders
  • Pregnancy health
  • Pediatric health

Background:

  • Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a prevalent neurodevelopmental disorder.
  • Maternal diet during pregnancy significantly impacts fetal neurodevelopment.
  • Coffee consumption is common during pregnancy and may pose risks to fetal development.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the association between maternal coffee consumption during pregnancy and the risk of ADHD in offspring.
  • To analyze existing research through a meta-analysis to strengthen findings.

Main Methods:

  • A case-control study was conducted in Egypt with mothers of children diagnosed with ADHD and typically developing children.
  • Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) criteria were used for ADHD diagnosis.
  • Multivariable logistic regression, meta-analysis, heterogeneity assessment (I² statistic), and publication bias evaluation (Egger's regression test) were employed.

Main Results:

  • Frequent maternal coffee consumption during pregnancy was associated with an increased risk of ADHD in offspring (OR = 1.85; 95% CI: 1.17, 2.92).
  • This association remained significant after adjusting for various antenatal, natal, and neonatal factors (OR = 1.82; 95% CI: 1.07, 3.09).
  • A meta-analysis of 7 studies confirmed a higher risk of ADHD with maternal coffee consumption (OR = 1.33; 95% CI: 1.13, 1.57) with no significant heterogeneity or publication bias.

Conclusions:

  • Both the case-control study and meta-analysis indicate a potential link between higher maternal coffee intake during pregnancy and increased ADHD risk in children.
  • Further prospective cohort studies utilizing objective caffeine biomarkers are recommended to establish causality and define safe consumption levels.