Analytical Determination of Piroxicam and Its Metabolites: A Comprehensive Insight

Piroxicam (PX), a widely used oxicam-class nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), remains highly relevant in pharmaceutical, biological, and environmental research due to its extensive clinical use, low solubility, strong plasma protein binding, and the formation of multiple metabolites. The literature evaluated in this review was collected from major scientific databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar, limited to peer-reviewed English-language studies. This review critically summarizes and compares the chromatographic, spectroscopic, and electrochemical methodologies developed for the determination of PX and its metabolites. Chromatographic techniques, especially high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and LC-MS/MS, remain the benchmark for PX detection due to their exceptional sensitivity, selectivity, and suitability for complex matrices. Spectroscopic methods provide rapid, simple, and low-cost alternatives but show reduced capability for ultra-trace analysis. In contrast, electrochemical and voltammetric approaches, particularly those employing nanomaterial-modified electrodes, offer excellent sensitivity, portability, and operational simplicity, making them promising candidates for real-time and on-site applications. Looking ahead, progress is expected to be driven by greener analytical technologies, miniaturized and automated platforms, and the growing role of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) in data processing, pattern recognition, and method optimization, ultimately improving the sustainability, accessibility, and regulatory relevance of PX analysis.