Mussel-Extracted Byssal Threads as Inspired Biomaterials for Biosensor Fabrication and Biomedical Applications

Mussels, an ecologically diverse group of bivalve molluscs, have attracted attention due to phenomenal adaptability across marine and estuarine environments and an exceptional ability to adhere strongly to wet and dynamic substrata by secreting specialized adhesive structures called byssal threads. These proteinaceous structures, which are secured by sticky plaques, enable mussels to sustain harsh environments and powerful currents. The cuticular covering of byssal thread is mechanically strong but flexible, with reversible metal-ligand coordination, particularly Fe³⁺-DOPA bonds that provide load-dissipating and self-healing properties. The unique combination of different properties, including mechanical, metal-binding, and self-healing, has been attributed to unique proteins synthesized by mussels called mussel foot proteins (mfps) found within the byssus, which is rich in catechol-containing residues such as DOPA. Numerous environmental factors affect the development and functional efficacy of byssus. Motivated by the remarkable properties of mussels, scientists have developed a wide range of bioinspired materials. This review presents an overview of different mussel species as well as structural and functional characteristics of the byssal threads. Besides focusing on their mechanical strength and biocompatibility, this study examines recent advancements in mussel-inspired hydrogels and scaffolds for bone regeneration, motion detection, and wound healing. Further emphasizing unique adhesion chemistry, this review highlights the development of next-generation biomaterials and healthcare technologies, especially smart biosensors and multifunctional theranostic platforms for integrated disease diagnostics and targeted therapy.