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Response Preparation and the Simon Effect: Experimental and Model-Based Analyses.

Herbert Heuer¹, Peter Wühr²

¹Leibniz Research Center for Working Environment and Human Factors (IfADo), Germany.

Journal of Cognition

|January 12, 2026

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

The Simon effect, a cognitive bias, is larger for frequent responses than infrequent ones. This study confirms biased response preparation is the primary driver of this effect.

Keywords:

leaky, competing accumulator model monitor distance response cues response frequency response preparation

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Area of Science:

Cognitive Psychology
Human Factors
Neuroscience

Background:

The Simon effect demonstrates how stimulus-response compatibility influences reaction times.
Previous research has explored various factors contributing to the Simon effect, including attention and response preparation.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the underlying mechanisms of the Simon effect, specifically the modulation by response frequency.
To differentiate between three competing hypotheses: biased response preparation, attentional facilitation, and trial frequency effects.

Main Methods:

Conducted three experiments manipulating response frequency and cue validity.
Utilized a model-based analysis with extensions of the Leaky, Competing Accumulator (LCA) model.
Assessed the dynamics of the Simon effect using delta plots.

Main Results:

The Simon effect was significantly modulated by relative response frequency.
The effect was independent of the physical distance between hands and the monitor.
Valid response cues almost completely eliminated the Simon effect.
Model simulations supported biased response preparation as the main factor, though dynamics were less accurately predicted without incorporating shielding.

Conclusions:

Biased response preparation plays a primary role in the Simon effect modulation by response frequency.
Response preparation may involve shielding against distraction in addition to anticipatory activation.
The specific type of congruency effect and stimulus timing influence frequency-based modulations.