Heterogeneous and heterostructured carbon nanomaterials for exploring the nexus of biomedical science

Recent advancements in nanotechnology have generated considerable interest in carbon-based nanomaterials (CNMs) owing to their adjustable structural, compositional, and surface characteristics. These characteristics allow the rational design of materials with tailored functionalities, enabling a broad spectrum of biomedical applications. This review explores two major categories of CNMs: heterogeneous structures and heterostructures, with an in-depth analysis of their unique architectures, synthesis strategies, and functional advantages. Heterogeneous carbon structures are typically formed by combining different carbon allotropes, whereas carbon-based heterostructures are developed by integrating carbon nanostructures with metal or metal oxide nanoparticles (NPs). Notably, van der Waals (vdW) heterostructures, formed via the vertical stacking of distinct carbon allotropes and functional nanomaterials, are highlighted due to their altered edge configurations, unique interlayer interactions, and synergistic physicochemical properties. Such precisely engineered systems have been successfully applied in antibacterial and anticancer therapies, targeted drug delivery, tissue engineering, bioimaging, biosensing, and the enhancement of secondary metabolite production (e.g., lutein). Collectively, this review underscores the critical role of materials design in harnessing the biomedical potential of CNMs, establishing them as key platforms for next-generation therapeutic and diagnostic technologies.