Target size, self-efficacy, and stress as determinants of precision in a marksmanship task

Marksmanship is a critical skill for law enforcement and military personnel, serving as a last resort in life-threatening situations to protect civilians, teammates, and oneself. While many studies have examined factors influencing shooting precision, the role of target size as a peripheral feature remains underexplored. This study investigated the effects of target size, shooting self-efficacy, subjective stress, shooting experience, physiological stress, and stress state variability on precision. A total of n = 140 student officers (74% male; M = 23.5 years) completed two live-fire tasks in a shooting simulator, firing ten rounds each at a small (12 cm) and a large (30 × 25 cm) target area with an identical aim point. Measures included emotional stress reactions, self-efficacy, shooting experience, and heart rate variability (RMSSD). Precision was indexed via mean distance to center and shot group radius. Smaller targets significantly enhanced precision (d = 0.36) independent of subjective stress. Self-efficacy predicted performance (r = 0.39) and was negatively associated with subjective stress (r = -0.30) and stress variability (r = -0.18). Mediation analysis showed that subjective stress partially explained the link between self-efficacy and precision (17.7%). RMSSD was unrelated to precision, whereas stress variability correlated positively with performance instability (r = 0.21). These findings suggest that smaller target areas act as peripheral cues that support perceptual-motor alignment during the limb-target control phase. Moreover, psychological attributes such as shooting self-efficacy contribute to performance both directly and via stress reduction. The results identify modifiable factors in shooting precision that can be systematically addressed in marksmanship training.