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Related Concept Videos

Conjugate Addition (1,4-Addition) vs Direct Addition (1,2-Addition)01:27

Conjugate Addition (1,4-Addition) vs Direct Addition (1,2-Addition)

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α,β-Unsaturated carbonyl compounds with two electrophilic sites, the carbonyl carbon, and the β carbon, are susceptible to nucleophilic attack via two modes: conjugate or 1,4-addition and direct or 1,2-addition.
Conjugate addition results in a thermodynamically stable product. The reaction retains the stronger C=O bond at the expense of the weaker C=C π bond. The process is slow as the β carbon is less electrophilic than the carbonyl carbon.
Direct addition products are...
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Classical Conditioning01:18

Classical Conditioning

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Associative learning, a core principle in behavioral psychology, involves forming connections between events and facilitating learned responses. This concept is vividly illustrated by classical conditioning, a process extensively studied by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov's pioneering research on dogs' digestive systems led to the discovery that behaviors can be learned through association, laying the groundwork for classical conditioning.
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Principles of Classical Conditioning01:23

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Classical conditioning, as described by Ivan Pavlov, is a foundational concept in associative learning, where a neutral stimulus becomes capable of eliciting a conditioned response through association with an unconditioned stimulus. The process of acquisition, where this learning occurs, and the subsequent phenomena of contiguity, contingency, generalization, discrimination, extinction, and spontaneous recovery are crucial for a comprehensive understanding of classical conditioning.
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Conjugate Addition of Enolates: Michael Addition01:08

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The attack of a nucleophile at the β carbon of an α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compound is called conjugate addition. Conjugate addition reactions of active methylene compounds, such as β-diketones, β-keto esters, β-keto nitriles, and α-nitro ketones, are called Michael addition reactions.
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Classical conditioning, a fundamental principle of associative learning, explains various phenomena observed in daily life, such as fear development, the placebo effect, taste aversion, and drug habituation. These applications demonstrate the profound impact of associative learning on human behavior and physiological responses.
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Classical conditioning not only includes the initial pairing of stimuli but also extends to more complex forms, such as higher-order conditioning. Higher-order conditioning involves creating associations beyond the primary conditioned stimulus, resulting in a chain of conditioned responses.
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Additive-specific modulation of non-classical nucleation pathways.

Annet Baken1,2, Alejandro Fernandez-Martinez2, Martine Lanson2

  • 1ESRF, European Synchotron Radiation Facility, ID15a Materials Science Beamline, Grenoble, France.

Nature Communications
|January 22, 2026
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Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Additives control crystallization by influencing mineral nucleation pathways, with distinct effects on portlandite and gypsum. These molecules impact prenucleation stages, offering insights for industrial applications and biomineralization.

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Area of Science:

  • Materials Science
  • Geochemistry
  • Chemical Engineering

Background:

  • Additives are vital for controlling material crystallization, but their mechanisms are not fully understood.
  • Understanding additive effects is crucial for optimizing industrial crystallization processes and biomineralization.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the impact of additives on the nucleation pathways of portlandite and gypsum.
  • To elucidate the mechanisms by which additives influence mineral crystallization.

Main Methods:

  • In situ high-energy X-ray scattering.
  • Potentiometric titrations.
  • Integration of scattering and titration techniques.

Main Results:

  • Portlandite and gypsum exhibit distinct multistep nucleation pathways: gradual transition for portlandite and abrupt for gypsum.
  • Additives influence nucleation primarily during the prenucleation stage, extending beyond classical models.
  • Additives exhibit a dual role, affecting different nucleation stages asynchronously.

Conclusions:

  • Mineral-specific additive effects correlate with distinct non-classical nucleation pathways and pH conditions.
  • Findings provide a basis for designing tailored additives for industrial crystallization and biomineralization.
  • Additive influence on crystallization is complex and multifaceted, impacting prenucleation and subsequent stages.