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Phase Transitions: Vaporization and Condensation02:39

Phase Transitions: Vaporization and Condensation

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The physical form of a substance changes on changing its temperature. For example, raising the temperature of a liquid causes the liquid to vaporize (convert into vapor). The process is called vaporization—a surface phenomenon. Vaporization occurs when the thermal motion of the molecules overcome the intermolecular forces, and the molecules (at the surface) escape into the gaseous state. When a liquid vaporizes in a closed container, gas molecules cannot escape. As these gas phase molecules...
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Molecular Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids02:26

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Particles in a solid are tightly packed together (fixed shape) and often arranged in a regular pattern; in a liquid, they are close together with no regular arrangement (no fixed shape); in a gas, they are far apart with no regular arrangement (no fixed shape). Particles in a solid vibrate about fixed positions (cannot flow) and do not generally move in relation to one another; in a liquid, they move past each other (can flow) but remain in essentially constant contact; in a gas, they move...
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Rise of Liquid in a Capillary Tube01:18

Rise of Liquid in a Capillary Tube

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When very thin cylindrical tubes, called capillaries, are dipped in a liquid, the liquid rises or falls in the tube compared to the surrounding liquid. This phenomenon is called capillary action. Capillary action occurs due to the combination of two opposing forces: the cohesive forces of the liquid, which cause it to stick to itself and form a rounded shape, and the adhesive forces between the liquid and the walls of the container, which cause the liquid to be attracted to the container walls.
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Phase Transitions02:31

Phase Transitions

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Whether solid, liquid, or gas, a substance's state depends on the order and arrangement of its particles (atoms, molecules, or ions). Particles in the solid pack closely together, generally in a pattern. The particles vibrate about their fixed positions but do not move or squeeze past their neighbors. In liquids, although the particles are closely spaced, they are randomly arranged. The position of the particles are not fixed—that is, they are free to move past their neighbors to...
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Deriving the Speed of Sound in a Liquid01:09

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As with waves on a string, the speed of sound or a mechanical wave in a fluid depends on the fluid's elastic modulus and inertia. The two relevant physical quantities are the bulk modulus and the density of the material. Indeed, it turns out that the relationship between speed and the bulk modulus and density in fluids is the same as that between the speed and the Young's modulus and density in solids.
The speed of sound in fluids can be derived by considering a mechanical wave...
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High-Performance Liquid Chromatography: Introduction01:11

High-Performance Liquid Chromatography: Introduction

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High-performance liquid chromatography(HPLC), formerly referred to as High-pressure liquid chromatography, is a powerful technique used to separate, identify, and quantify components in complex mixtures. The term "high pressure" refers to using high pressure to push the liquid mobile phase through the tightly packed columns.
In HPLC, two phases play a critical role in the separation process:
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 28, 2026

Author Spotlight: Developing Synthetic Cells from Programmable Amphiphilic DNA Nanostructures
08:02

Author Spotlight: Developing Synthetic Cells from Programmable Amphiphilic DNA Nanostructures

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DNA-Driven Liquid-Liquid Phase Separation from Cellular Condensates to Programmable Synthetic Systems.

Sanjay Kosara1, Abhijit Biswas1, Amit K Yadav1

  • 1Department of Biological Sciences and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Near Palaj, Gandhinagar, Gujarat 382055, India.

ACS Applied Bio Materials
|January 26, 2026
PubMed
Summary

DNA actively drives liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) in cells and synthetic systems. This research explores DNA

Keywords:
DNA dropletsDNA hydrogelartificial DNA junctionsbiomolecular condensatesliquid−liquid phase separationsynthetic cells

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Area of Science:

  • Biophysics
  • Molecular Biology
  • Materials Science

Background:

  • Liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) creates membraneless condensates regulating cellular functions.
  • While proteins and RNA were primary focus, DNA is now recognized as an active LLPS driver.
  • DNA condensates are crucial for nuclear processes like chromatin organization and gene regulation.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To synthesize current understanding of DNA-mediated LLPS in biological and synthetic contexts.
  • To highlight underappreciated aspects of DNA's role in phase separation.
  • To bridge fundamental biophysics with engineering principles for synthetic DNA systems.

Main Methods:

  • Review and synthesis of existing research on DNA-mediated LLPS.
  • Emphasis on five key underappreciated topics: DNA's driving role, reversible aggregation, non-Fickian transport, mechanical characterization, and multiscale complexity.
  • Highlighting advanced single-molecule technologies like optical tweezers and scanning probe microscopy.

Main Results:

  • DNA actively drives LLPS via charge and topology, distinct from passive roles.
  • DNA aggregation can be reversible, differing from irreversible protein misfolding.
  • Non-Fickian transport, including ballistic wave diffusion, occurs in DNA condensates.
  • Single-molecule techniques reveal state-dependent material properties of DNA condensates.
  • Cellular DNA condensation involves multiscale complexity influenced by topology and hierarchy.

Conclusions:

  • DNA is a fundamental driver of phase separation in both natural and synthetic systems.
  • Understanding DNA-mediated LLPS offers insights into cellular processes and enables new biomaterials.
  • This integrated perspective provides a framework for developing therapeutic and biotechnological applications.