Related Experiment Video
Updated: Jan 28, 2026

Experimental Methods for Trapping Ions Using Microfabricated Surface Ion Traps
Published on: August 17, 2017
How charge frustration causes ion ordering and microphase separation at surfaces
Mingyi Zhang1, Benjamin A Legg2, Benjamin A Helfrecht1,3
1Physical Sciences Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, USA.
None:
Ion interactions with charged surfaces are fundamental to electrochemical, geochemical and biological systems, yet the impact of charging on interfacial structure and dynamics is poorly understood. Here we investigate the adsorption and precipitation of multivalent ions on mica using molecularly resolved atomic force microscopy. Although divalent ions form continuous hydroxide monolayers in a manner consistent with classical models, trivalent ions adopt complex states associated with strong overcharging, including ordered ion networks, cluster arrays and microphase-separated films not predicted by those models. Monte Carlo simulations show that such states emerge from charge frustration arising when restrictions on repelling charges prevent the minimization of electrostatic forces. Due to their universal nature across cation types, the results provide general principles underlying charge-driven nanostructure formation and insights for using electric fields to direct materials synthesis.
Related Concept Videos
Ions and Ionic Charges
Trends in Lattice Energy: Ion Size and Charge
Formal Charges
Ion Channels
Ion channels are specialized integral membrane proteins on the plasma membrane that allow...
Ions as Acids and Bases
Salts are ionic compounds composed of cations and anions, either of which may be capable of undergoing an acid or base ionization reaction with water. Aqueous salt solutions, therefore, may be acidic, basic, or neutral, depending on the relative acid-base strengths of the salt’s constituent ions. For example, dissolving the ammonium chloride in water results in its dissociation, as described by the equation:
Formation of Complex Ions

