Advances in Fetal Repair of Spina Bifida Integrating Prenatal Surgery, Stem Cells, and Biomaterials

Spina bifida (SB) is a congenital malformation of the central nervous system (CNS), resulting from incomplete closure of the neural tube (NT) during early embryogenesis. Myelomeningocele (MMC), the most severe form of SB, leads to progressive neurological, orthopedic, and urological dysfunctions due to both NT developmental failure and secondary intrauterine injury ("two-hit hypothesis"). Prenatal repair of MMC has progressed considerably since the Management of Myelomeningocele Study (MOMS, 2011) trial, which showed that open fetal surgery can decrease the need for shunting and improve motor function, although it carries significant maternal risks. To address these limitations, minimally invasive techniques have been developed, with the goal of achieving similar benefits for the fetus while reducing maternal morbidity. Recent research has shifted toward regenerative strategies, integrating mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), bioengineered scaffolds, and cell-derived products to move beyond mere mechanical protection toward true NT repair. Preclinical studies in rodent and ovine models have shown that amniotic- and placenta-derived MSCs exert neuroprotective and immunomodulatory paracrine effects, promoting angiogenesis, modulating inflammation, and supporting tissue regeneration. Minimally invasive, cell-based interventions such as Transamniotic Stem Cell Therapy (TRASCET), in preclinical rodent models, offer the possibility of very early treatment without hysterotomy, although translation remains limited by the lack of large-animal validation and long-term safety data. In parallel, advances in biomaterials, nanostructured scaffolds, and exosome-based therapies reinforce a regenerative paradigm that may improve neurological outcomes and quality of life in affected children. Ongoing translational studies are essential to optimize these approaches and define their safety and efficacy in clinical settings. This review provides an integrated overview of embryological mechanisms, diagnostic strategies, and prenatal therapeutic advances in SB treatment, with emphasis on prenatal repair, fetal surgery and emerging regenerative approaches.