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Quantum Numbers02:43

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It is said that the energy of an electron in an atom is quantized; that is, it can be equal only to certain specific values and can jump from one energy level to another but not transition smoothly or stay between these levels.
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Shortly after de Broglie published his ideas that the electron in a hydrogen atom could be better thought of as being a circular standing wave instead of a particle moving in quantized circular orbits, Erwin Schrödinger extended de Broglie’s work by deriving what is now known as the Schrödinger equation. When Schrödinger applied his equation to hydrogen-like atoms, he was able to reproduce Bohr’s expression for the energy and, thus, the Rydberg formula governing hydrogen spectra.
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Group polarization is the strengthening of an original group attitude following the discussion of views within a group (Teger & Pruitt, 1967). That is, if a group initially favors a viewpoint, after discussion the group consensus is likely a stronger endorsement of the viewpoint. Conversely, if the group was initially opposed to a viewpoint, group discussion would likely lead to stronger opposition.
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Many proteins form complexes to carry out their functions, making protein-protein interactions (PPIs) essential for an organism's survival. Most PPIs are stabilized by numerous weak noncovalent chemical forces. The physical shape of the interfaces determines the way two proteins interact. Many globular proteins have closely-matching shapes on their surfaces, which form a large number of weak bonds. Additionally, many PPIs occur between two helices or between a surface cleft and a...
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Proteins can form homomeric complexes with another unit of the same protein or heteromeric complexes with different types.  Most protein complexes self-assemble spontaneously via ordered pathways, while some proteins need assembly factors that guide their proper assembly. Despite the crowded intracellular environment, proteins usually interact with their correct partners and form functional complexes.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 30, 2026

A Photonic System for Generating Unconditional Polarization-Entangled Photons Based on Multiple Quantum Interference
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Engineering Interface Polarity via Halide-Functionalized Self-Assembled Monolayers for NiO-Based QLEDs with High

Hyo-Jun Lim1, Hyun Min Park1, Thi Huong Thao Dang1

  • 1School of Materials Science and Engineering, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea.

Small (Weinheim an Der Bergstrasse, Germany)
|January 29, 2026
PubMed
Summary

Engineers developed a new interface for quantum dot light-emitting diodes (QLEDs) using modified copper-doped nickel oxide. This innovation significantly boosts QLED efficiency by improving hole injection and reducing defects.

Keywords:
NiOQLEDdipole momenthalide‐functionalized self‐assembled monolayerhole‐injection layer

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Area of Science:

  • Materials Science
  • Nanotechnology
  • Optoelectronics

Background:

  • Quantum dot light-emitting diodes (QLEDs) are promising for advanced displays.
  • Current QLEDs face challenges with inefficient inorganic hole-injection layers (HILs) due to poor energy alignment and defects.
  • This limits overall device performance and efficiency.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To engineer an improved inorganic HIL for high-performance QLEDs.
  • To enhance charge injection and reduce interfacial defects in QLEDs.
  • To achieve record efficiencies in green QLED devices.

Main Methods:

  • Interfacial engineering of Cu-doped NiO (Cu:NiO) with halide-functionalized self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) of (2-(9H-carbazol-9-yl)ethyl)phosphonic acid (2PACz).
  • Utilized density functional theory (DFT) to analyze interfacial properties and molecular interactions.
  • Fabricated and characterized QLED devices with modified HILs.

Main Results:

  • Halide-SAMs created dipoles, shifting the Cu:NiO valence band, increasing hole density, and reducing surface defects.
  • High molecular polarizability of halide substituents enhanced van der Waals forces for robust passivation.
  • QLEDs with I-2PACz-modified Cu:NiO achieved a record external quantum efficiency (EQE) of 26.95% (Mean 19.53%), a 3.5-fold improvement.

Conclusions:

  • Simultaneously tuning interface polarity and molecular polarizability is a viable strategy for high-performance QLEDs.
  • This approach leads to trap-suppressed, charge-balanced, and highly efficient QLED architectures.
  • The developed inorganic HIL represents a significant advancement for QLED technology.