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Macroscopic entheseal changes (EC) grades may not reflect bone remodeling stages. Higher EC grades (3) indicate extreme stress, while lower grades (1-2) show gradual, organized bone growth. Micro-CT and histology offer complementary insights.

Keywords:
musculus deltoideusSpainentheseal changeshumerusm‐CT scannerpalaeohistology

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Area of Science:

  • Paleoanthropology
  • Skeletal Biology
  • Biomechanics

Background:

  • Entheseal changes (EC) are influenced by physical activity, age, sex, and genetics.
  • Previous studies on EC used macroscopic and 3D geometric morphometric approaches.
  • The relationship between macroscopic EC appearance and microstructure is poorly understood.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the relationship between macroscopic entheseal changes and their underlying microstructure.
  • To analyze entheseal robusticity and mineralization patterns in historical human humeri.

Main Methods:

  • Analysis of M. deltoideus enthesis from nine adult male humeri (12th-18th centuries, Spain).
  • Macroscopic robusticity assessed using the Mariotti method.
  • Microanatomical analysis combined micro-computed tomography (m-CT) scanning and histological thin sections.
  • Quantification of mineralized area (% Min. Ar.) and spatial distribution of non-mineralized cavities.

Main Results:

  • Mineralized area (% Min. Ar.) and distribution depend on robusticity grade.
  • Grade 3 entheses showed lower, variable mineralization with a valley-shaped distribution.
  • Grades 1 and 2 entheses exhibited over 90% mean mineralization with flat distribution.
  • Histological analysis revealed secondary osteon dominance and bone cavities concentrated in entheses development areas.

Conclusions:

  • Macroscopic EC grades may not represent sequential bone remodeling phases.
  • Grades 1-2 entheses exhibit gradual growth with organized internal anatomy.
  • Grade 3 entheses may result from extreme mechanical stress and intense bone remodeling.
  • Micro-CT and histology provide complementary data, supporting non-destructive methods for future research.