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Bystander Effect

Bystander Effect

The discussion of bullying highlights the problem of witnesses not intervening to help a victim. This is a common occurrence, as the following well-publicized event demonstrates. In 1964, in Queens, New York, a 19-year-old woman named Kitty Genovese was attacked by a person with a knife near the back entrance to her apartment building and again in the hallway inside her apartment building. When the attack occurred, she screamed for help numerous times and eventually died from her stab wounds.

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Updated: Feb 15, 2026

Photodynamic Therapy with Blended Conducting Polymer/Fullerene Nanoparticle Photosensitizers

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The Trouble With Photodynamic Therapy.

David J Browning¹

¹From the Wake Forest University School of Medicine (D.J.B.), Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA.

American Journal of Ophthalmology

|February 13, 2026

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is effective for retinal diseases like chronic central serous retinopathy (CSR) but faces significant reimbursement challenges in the US, leading to delayed treatment and vision loss. Coverage for CSR needs improvement.

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Area of Science:

Ophthalmology
Retinal Diseases
Photodynamic Therapy

Background:

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is an established treatment for certain retinal conditions.
Its use in the United States has declined for some indications despite proven efficacy.

Purpose of the Study:

To evaluate the role and challenges of photodynamic therapy (PDT) in treating retinal diseases within the US.
To identify obstacles hindering the application of PDT for evidence-based indications.

Main Methods:

This perspective essay utilized a historical summary.
An exemplary case report and a review of relevant literature were incorporated.

Main Results:

PDT is FDA-approved for neovascular age-related macular degeneration (AMD) but rarely used due to newer treatments.
It remains effective and reimbursed for polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy (PCV) and choroidal hemangioma.
Despite being the most effective treatment for chronic central serous retinopathy (CSR), insurance authorization and reimbursement are difficult, leading to vision loss.

Conclusions:

Accessing PDT specialists and obtaining insurance coverage for CSR in the US is challenging, unlike in other countries.
Difficulties in coverage and reimbursement lead to avoidable vision loss for patients with indicated conditions.
A proposed solution involves insurers covering PDT for chronic CSR at a rate comparable to neovascular AMD treatments.