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The subclavian artery transitions into the axillary artery as it exits the chest and enters the axillary region. This artery is critical for supplying blood to the shoulder area, including the head of the humerus, through the humeral circumflex arteries. As the vessel continues into the upper arm or brachium, it becomes the brachial artery. This artery plays a key role in vascularizing the brachial region and bifurcates at the elbow into several branches. These branches include the deep...
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The human circulatory system, a marvel of biological engineering, is a complex network of vessels that transport blood throughout the body. Among these, the veins responsible for carrying blood from the upper limbs are divided into two categories: deep and superficial.
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The upper limb consists of the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand bones. The humerus is the single bone of the upper arm region. Proximally, it has a large, spherical, smooth head that articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula to form the glenohumeral or shoulder joint. The margin of the head is the anatomical neck, a residual epiphyseal plate. Laterally it extends to form bony projections called the greater tubercle and the lesser tubercle. Next to the tubercles is the surgical neck, a...
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The ulna and radius are parallel bones of the antebrachium or the forearm. The ulna lies medially and consists of a bony tip called the olecranon process at its proximal end. This hook-like projection articulates with the olecranon fossa of the humerus and forms the "hinged" ulnohumeral part of the elbow joint. This joint facilitates forearm extension and flexion while preventing its hyperextension. Similarly, the coronoid process, another bony projection on the proximal/anterior side...
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The radius is longer of the two bones that make up the human antebrachium or forearm. At the proximal end, the radius articulates with the capitulum of the humerus and the radial notch of the ulna to form the elbow joint. At the distal end, the radius articulates with the ulna via the ulnar notch, forming the distal radioulnar joint. Distally, the radius also attaches to the carpal wrist bones (scaphoid and lunate) to form the radiocarpal joint.
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Integrins act both as extracellular input receivers and as intracellular processing activators. As their name suggests, integrins are entirely integrated into the membrane structure. Their hydrophobic membrane-spanning regions interact with the phospholipid bilayer's hydrophobic region. These membrane receptors provide extracellular attachment sites for effectors like hormones and growth factors. They activate intracellular response cascades when their effectors are bound and active.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 16, 2026

Measurement & Analysis of the Temporal Discrimination Threshold Applied to Cervical Dystonia
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Structural brain analysis in focal upper limb dystonia.

Danilo Donizete de Faria1,2,3,4, Artur José Marques Paulo5, Joselisa Péres Queiroz de Paiva5

  • 1Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, R. Pedro de Toledo, 650, São Paulo, SP, 04039-002, Brazil. ddf.danilofaria@gmail.com.

Scientific Reports
|February 14, 2026
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

This study found no significant gray or white matter changes in individuals with upper limb dystonia using MRI and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI). These findings suggest preserved brain structure in focal dystonia patients compared to controls.

Keywords:
DTIDystoniaFocal dystoniaStructural MRIT1-imagingUpper limb dystonia

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroimaging
  • Neurology
  • Radiology

Background:

  • Inconsistent findings exist regarding structural brain alterations in focal dystonia.
  • Methodological limitations and sample heterogeneity may contribute to previous study discrepancies.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate gray and white matter changes in upper limb dystonia using advanced MRI techniques.
  • To compare brain structure between focal upper limb dystonia patients and healthy controls.

Main Methods:

  • Utilized 3T MRI including T1-weighted images and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI).
  • Analyzed cortical morphology (thickness, volume, area) with FreeSurfer.
  • Assessed white matter integrity using DTI metrics, tract-based spatial statistics, and region of interest (ROI) analysis including basal ganglia, thalamus, and cerebellum.

Main Results:

  • No significant differences in cortical morphology were found between dystonia patients and controls.
  • Tract and ROI-based analyses revealed no significant changes in DTI metrics.
  • Gray and white matter microstructural integrity appeared preserved in focal upper limb dystonia.

Conclusions:

  • Focal upper limb dystonia may not involve detectable gray or white matter microstructural abnormalities with current MRI methods.
  • The absence of significant findings suggests potential for neuromodulation and network-based therapies.
  • Larger, multi-modal studies are recommended to further explore anatomical substrates in focal dystonia.