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A Rapidly Incremented Tethered-Swimming Maximal Protocol for Cardiorespiratory Assessment of Swimmers

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Engineering Elite Swimming Start Performance: Key Kinetic and Kinematic Variables with Reference Values.

Dennis-Peter Born^1,2,3, Lina Nussbaumer^1,2, Markus Buck¹

¹Swiss Development Hub for Strength and Conditioning in Swimming, Swiss Aquatics-National Swimming Federation, 3048 Worblaufen, Switzerland.

Bioengineering (Basel, Switzerland)

|February 27, 2026

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Elite swimmers can improve their start times by focusing on key performance indicators like power, force production, and take-off velocity. Optimizing these elements, including earlier peak power and later grab force timing, enhances underwater performance and overall race strategy.

Keywords:

PCA adolescents benchmarks competitive swimming junior normative values talent

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Area of Science:

Sports Science
Biomechanics
Swimming Performance Analysis

Background:

Swimming start performance is a complex, multidimensional aspect of racing.
Identifying key performance indicators (KPIs) and establishing reference values is crucial for elite development.
Previous research has not comprehensively analyzed the kinetic and kinematic variables influencing swimming start success.

Purpose of the Study:

To determine the key performance indicators (KPIs) of swimming start performance.
To provide percentile-based reference values for elite junior and adult swimmers.
To identify biomechanical factors significantly affecting 15m start time.

Main Methods:

Analysis of routine performance data from Swiss national team swimmers (n=136).
Kinetic and kinematic variables from instrumented starting blocks were analyzed.
Principal component analysis and multiple linear regression were used to identify KPIs affecting 15m start time.

Main Results:

Peak and average power, front horizontal and total vertical peak forces, and timing of peak power were significant.
Grab forces, center-of-gravity height, take-off velocity, and entry velocity significantly impacted start performance.
Entry time, distance before the first kick, maximal swimming depth, and distance before breaking the surface were also key factors.

Conclusions:

Swimmers should aim for earlier peak power and later grab force timing during the block phase.
Maximizing take-off and entry velocities, underwater distance, and swimming depth are critical for faster starts.
These findings provide actionable insights for optimizing swimming start technique and training regimens.