Thallium: An overview of its distribution in the environment and its cellular and molecular toxicity

Thallium (Tl), a rare but highly toxic trace metal, poses significant environmental and health risks due to its increasing industrial applications and potential for contamination. This narrative review focuses on Tl's presence in soil and its subsequent uptake by food crops, emphasizing the critical entry pathway into the food chain and the associated human health implications. Tl contamination in soil primarily arises from mining activities, industrial processes, and atmospheric deposition. The metal's high solubility in water facilitates its mobility and bioavailability, leading to accumulation in agricultural soils. Plants, particularly leafy vegetables, can readily absorb Tl from contaminated soil through their roots, translocating it to edible parts. The transfer of Tl from soil to food crops raises concerns about human exposure through dietary intake. Consuming Tl-contaminated vegetables, especially those grown in polluted areas, can lead to chronic toxicity. Moreover, we discuss the diagnosis of Tl intoxication, treatment and for risk assessment. Future studies focused on elucidating the mechanisms of Tl toxicity and its environmental contamination will contribute to novel information for adequate risk assessment and the implementation of effective safety policies.