Neuroimmunometabolic co-evolution in the tumor micro- and macroenvironment

The nervous system integrates immune, endocrine, and circulatory systems to coordinate complex physiological responses. It influences tumor progression and treatment resistance through interactions with cancer cells and immune cells and by regulating metabolic processes within both the tumor microenvironment (TME) and tumor macroenvironment (TMaE). This review provides a comprehensive overview of the neuroimmunometabolic co-evolution within the TME and TMaE. At the TME scale, we discuss the role of the peripheral nervous system (PNS), including sympathetic, parasympathetic, and sensory neurons, in regulating metabolic processes and immune cell functions. At the TMaE scale, we highlight how cancer cells exploit brain-body interactions to reprogram systemic metabolism and immune responses, creating conditions that favor tumor progression. Additionally, we describe how the PNS serves as a conduit for long-range communication between tumors and distant organs. Finally, we identify key knowledge gaps, propose strategies to address current limitations, and discuss clinically actionable neuroimmune and neurometabolic therapies.