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Related Concept Videos

Cranial Nerves: Types Part I01:14

Cranial Nerves: Types Part I

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Cranial nerves are responsible for transmitting motor and sensory information between the brain and various parts of the body. There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves, with the first six being essential in sensory perception, motor control, and autonomic functions related to the head and neck.
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The human tooth enables us to eat a variety of foods, speak clearly, and even aid in shaping our faces. Teeth are composed of various elements that work together. Here's a detailed look at the anatomy of a human tooth.
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Cranial Nerves: Overview and Anatomy01:19

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The cranial nerves are an important part of the complex network of nerves in the human body. These nerves emerge directly from the brain and are responsible for transmitting essential information between the brain and various parts of the head and neck. There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves, systematically numbered using Roman numerals from I to XII, beginning from the anterior and moving to the posterior of the brain. Each cranial nerve is uniquely identified by names that reflect its function...
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Cranial Nerves: Types Part II01:22

Cranial Nerves: Types Part II

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Cranial nerves are responsible for transmitting motor and sensory information between the brain and various parts of the body. There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves. While the first six innervate the head and neck, the latter six nerves innervate the head and neck, as well as organs and tissues in the thoracic and abdominal cavities. They facilitate communication, expression, and autonomic control within the human body.
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Cranial Part of Parasympathetic Division01:18

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The cranial part of the parasympathetic division plays a crucial role in regulating the visceral functions of the head and specific structures in the neck, thoracic, and abdominopelvic cavities. Preganglionic fibers of the parasympathetic division exit the brain through cranial nerves III (oculomotor), VII (facial), IX (glossopharyngeal), and X (vagus), delivering parasympathetic output to the respective visceral structures.
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Teeth01:15

Teeth

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The formation of teeth, also known as odontogenesis, is a complex process that begins in utero, around the sixth week of embryonic development. There are three stages to this process: the bud stage, the cap stage, and the bell stage.
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Updated: Mar 10, 2026

Analysis of Developing Tooth Germ Innervation Using Microfluidic Co-culture Devices
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Innervation of the Maxillary Teeth: Integrating Classical Anatomy With the Dual Innervation Model.

Kiyosato Hino1, Shogo Kikuta1, Shion Hama2

  • 1Dental and Oral Medical Center, Kurume University School of Medicine, Fukuoka, Japan.

Clinical Anatomy (New York, N.Y.)
|March 9, 2026
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Maxillary tooth innervation involves both buccal and palatal pathways, challenging traditional models. This dual innervation concept refines anesthetic techniques for improved dental and oral surgery outcomes.

Keywords:
anatomyanesthesialocal anesthesiamaxillamaxillary nervepainsuperior alveolar nervessuperior dental plexustoothtrigeminal nerve

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Area of Science:

  • Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery
  • Neuroanatomy
  • Dental Anesthesiology

Background:

  • Maxillary tooth innervation is crucial for dental procedures.
  • Classical models of superior dental plexus innervation are insufficient to explain clinical variability.
  • Advancements in imaging and microanatomy offer new insights.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To synthesize classical and contemporary findings on maxillary tooth innervation.
  • To propose a dual innervation model including palatal pathways.
  • To re-evaluate current anesthetic techniques and suggest evidence-based alternatives.

Main Methods:

  • Comprehensive review of anatomical literature.
  • Synthesis of classical anatomical knowledge with recent microanatomical research.
  • Analysis of diagnostic imaging findings.

Main Results:

  • A dual innervation model for maxillary teeth is established, highlighting a significant palatal neurovascular supply.
  • Conventional palatal anesthetic techniques (AMSA, P-ASA) are reclassified as infiltrations.
  • New techniques like the palatal alveolar foramen injection (PAFI) are proposed.

Conclusions:

  • The dual innervation concept necessitates a paradigm shift in understanding maxillary tooth anesthesia.
  • Current palatal anesthetic techniques require reassessment.
  • Integrating this concept into education and training will enhance surgical precision and patient care.