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Throughout its ~4.5 billion year history, the Earth has experienced periods of warming and cooling. However, the current drastic increase in global temperatures is well outside of the Earth’s cyclic norms, and evidence for human-caused global climate change is compelling. Paleoclimatology, the study of ancient climate conditions, provides ample evidence for human-caused global climate change by comparing recent conditions with those in the past.
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During leveling, the Earth's curvature and atmospheric refraction introduce deviations in the line of sight from a true horizontal reference. When the line of sight is leveled, it remains perpendicular to the plumb line only at a single point. Beyond this, it deviates due to the Earth’s curvature, represented by the correction C. For a sight distance D, the deviation can be derived using the relationship:This relationship shows that the deviation increases quadratically with distance. Over a...
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Change in atmospheric pressure with height is particularly interesting. The decrease in atmospheric pressure with increasing altitude is due to the decreasing gravitational force per unit area as we move away from the surface of the earth.
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Gas pressure is caused by force exerted by gas molecules colliding with the surfaces of objects. Although the force of each collision is very small, any surface of an appreciable area experiences a large number of collisions in a short time, which can result in high pressure.
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Updated: Mar 14, 2026

Author Spotlight: Unveiling Plankton Response to Climate Change Through Time-Series Data and Artistic Expression
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AI for atmosphere-ocean sciences: advancements, challenges and ways forward.

Jing-Jia Luo1, Jiangjiang Xia2, Baoxiang Pan3

  • 1State Key Laboratory of Climate System Prediction and Risk Management (CPRM)/Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Intelligent Weather Forecasting and Applications Based on Big Data/ICAR/CIC-FEMD/KLME/ILCEC, School of Artificial Intelligence, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China.

National Science Review
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PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Artificial intelligence (AI) is revolutionizing Earth science, especially in atmosphere-ocean research. Hybrid physics-AI models offer a promising path for accurate climate forecasting and societal applications.

Keywords:
AI agentAI application and challengeAI-MIPatmosphere–ocean sciencesexplainable AI

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Area of Science:

  • Earth Science
  • Atmosphere-Ocean Sciences
  • Artificial Intelligence Applications

Background:

  • Artificial intelligence (AI) presents transformative potential for addressing complex Earth science challenges.
  • The integration of AI in atmosphere-ocean sciences is rapidly advancing.
  • Current research focuses on leveraging AI for improved weather and climate insights.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review advances and challenges of AI in atmosphere-ocean sciences.
  • To explore the application of AI in weather and climate forecasting.
  • To outline future directions for AI in Earth science research.

Main Methods:

  • Review of deep-learning methods and their application in forecasting.
  • Examination of AI for phenomenon detection, data assimilation, and bias correction.
  • Discussion on explainable AI and hybrid physics-AI modeling.

Main Results:

  • Deep learning outperforms dynamical models in weather and climate forecasting accuracy and efficiency.
  • AI enhances data assimilation, reconstruction, bias correction, and downscaling.
  • Hybrid physics-AI models are crucial for generalizability and causal consistency.

Conclusions:

  • Explainable AI is essential for building trust and extracting mechanistic insights.
  • A framework for AI-based model intercomparison is needed for rigorous benchmarking.
  • AI represents a paradigm shift for understanding and adapting to climate change, with applications in early-warning systems and green energy.