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Background and Environment Affect Phenotype

Background and Environment Affect Phenotype

Although the genetic makeup of an organism plays a major role in determining the phenotype, there are also several environmental factors, such as temperature, oxygen availability, presence of mutagens, that can alter an organism’s phenotype.
An example of how genetic background affects phenotype can be seen in horses. The Extension gene in horses is responsible for their coat color. A wild-type gene (EE) produces black pigment in the coat, while a mutant gene (ee) produces red pigment. A...

Mate Choice

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Mate choice—the decision about whom to mate with—is a type of natural selection, since animals must reproduce to pass down their genes. Mate choice is also called intersexual selection because the behavior occurs between the sexes.

Epistasis

Epistasis

In addition to multiple alleles at the same locus influencing traits, numerous genes or alleles at different locations may interact and influence phenotypes in a phenomenon called epistasis. For example, rabbit fur can be black or brown depending on whether the animal is homozygous dominant or heterozygous at a TYRP1 locus. However, if the rabbit is also homozygous recessive at a locus on the tyrosinase gene (TYR), it will have an unshaded coat that appears white, regardless of its TYRP1...

Complementation Tests

Complementation Tests

A complementation test is a simple cross to identify whether the two mutations are located on the same gene or different genes. It was first performed by Edward Lewis in the 1940s while working on fruit flies. He developed the test to identify the location and arrangement of different mutations on chromosomes.
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Frequency-dependent Selection

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Position-effect Variegation

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In 1928, a German botanist Emil Heitz observed the moss nuclei with a DNA binding dye. He observed that while some chromatin regions decondense and spread out in the interphase nucleus, others do not. He termed them euchromatin and heterochromatin, respectively. He proposed that the heterochromatin regions reflect a functionally inactive state of the genome. It was later confirmed that heterochromatin is transcriptionally repressed, and euchromatin is transcriptionally active chromatin.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Mar 19, 2026

Probing the Limits of Egg Recognition Using Egg Rejection Experiments Along Phenotypic Gradients

Probing the Limits of Egg Recognition Using Egg Rejection Experiments Along Phenotypic Gradients

Published on: August 22, 2018

Egg colour influences egg removal by common cuckoos (Cuculus canorus).

Longwu Wang¹, Haixia Luo², Wei Liang³

¹Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Ecology of Tropical Islands, Key Laboratory of Tropical Animal and Plant Ecology of Hainan Province, College of Life Sciences, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China; School of Life Sciences, Guizhou Normal University, Guiyang 550001, China.

Behavioural Processes

|March 18, 2026

Summary

Common cuckoos selectively remove host eggs based on color. They preferentially remove red model eggs, suggesting chromatic cues, not just brightness, guide this brood parasite behavior.

Keywords:

Brood parasitism Common cuckoo Crypsis Egg colour Egg removal Oriental reed warbler

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Last Updated: Mar 19, 2026

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Area of Science:

Behavioral Ecology
Ornithology
Evolutionary Biology

Background:

Brood parasitic cuckoos remove host eggs before laying their own, but the reason remains unclear.
Previous research focused on egg brightness, overlooking the role of color (hue) in egg recognition.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate whether common cuckoos use chromatic cues (color) to select host eggs for removal.
To explore the potential reasons behind color-based egg selection in brood parasitism.

Main Methods:

Experimental nests with red and green model eggs were observed using video recordings.
Common cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) egg removal preferences were analyzed.
Avian visual modeling was used to assess egg conspicuousness.

Main Results:

Cuckoos showed a strong preference for removing red model eggs (92% of cases).
This preference indicates the use of chromatic cues in selective egg removal.
Visual modeling suggested red eggs were not removed due to higher conspicuousness.

Conclusions:

Common cuckoos utilize chromatic cues, specifically hue, to target host eggs for removal.
The preference for red eggs may be linked to an attraction similar to food-seeking behavior.
Findings enhance understanding of egg removal strategies in brood parasites.