A review on analytical perspectives for cyclophosphamide, its metabolites, and impurities

Cyclophosphamide (CP) is a common chemotherapeutic and immunosuppressive drug whose investigation is important due to its biotransformation, toxic breakdown products, and potential for environmental pollution. The purpose of this review is to offer an extensive assessment of current analytical techniques employed in detecting cyclophosphamide, its metabolites, and impurities in pharmaceutical and biological samples. The techniques discussed include nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), capillary electrophoresis (CE), UV-visible spectrophotometry, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Each method is assessed with respect to its effectiveness based on evaluation criteria such as sensitivity, specificity, detection limits, and ease of use or regulatory compliance. We pay special attention to the metabolites and contaminants of CP and degradation pathways. Key findings focus on the importance of sample preparation and method validation, particularly derivatisation for unstable chemicals. The review also touches on ecological and occupational risks by focusing on analytical procedures for monitoring exposure to the environment and workplace. This review highlights the relevance of analytical techniques in ensuring the quality, safety, and regulatory compliance of cyclophosphamide-containing pharmaceutical products. Overall, the review compares established and advanced analytical techniques based on sensitivity, selectivity, and applicability for pharmaceutical, biological, and environmental analysis of cyclophosphamide.